Reasons for continuity and change - industrial Britain
In the towns of industrial Britain, conditions got a lot worse after 1750. They remained very poor for over 100 years. However, towards the end of this period, there were significant improvements in urban living conditions. This case study examines the reasons for the poor conditions and then the reasons for the improvement by c.1900.
Reasons that urban living conditions got worse after c.1750
Urban living conditions got worse after c.1750 for several reasons:
- Unsafe and unsanitary housing, such as back-to-back housing built around yards and overcrowded lodging houses.
- Poor diet - less well-off workers were malnourished, relying on basics such as potatoes and tea.
- Air pollution was caused by smoke from factories and mills.
- Diseases such as typhus and tuberculosis spread more easily in the overcrowded conditions.
- Dangerous water, which was polluted with human waste, caused diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
- Poor methods of waste disposal, such as overflowing cesspits placed near water pumps.
Question
Why was public health in early industrial Britain poor?
- Rapid urbanisation - Towns and cities experienced unprecedented growth from the late 18th century onwards. The fast pace of growth meant that town infrastructures (such as water supply and sewage disposal) could not cope. Landlords built houses cheaply and quickly for profit.
- Laissez-faire attitude - Many people believed it was not the responsibility of the government to provide clean water, good housing or other facilities. They believed it was the responsibility of individuals to stay clean and avoid disease. As a result, governments were reluctant to take measures to improve health.
- Cost and local government - Town councils were run by richer, middle-class people who paid rates. These were taxes that were spent on the upkeep of the local area. Many of these people were not in favour of having their rates increased in order to provide better facilities (such as sewers) for the poor.
- Lack of understanding of the causes of disease - Disease was not well understood until after the 1860s. Before this it was believed that disease was carried in miasmas (bad smells). This meant that during cholera outbreaks, the authorities took the wrong approach, such as burning barrels of tar to clear smells.
- The working class could not vote - No working-class people had the vote until 1867. Therefore, politicians listened more to richer middle- and upper-class men, who could have voted them out of power if they had taken measures to help the poor. Richer people were not as affected by overcrowding and lack of clean water.
Reasons for improvements by c.1900
- The 1848 Public Health Act - This encouraged (but did not force) town authorities to increase rates to pay for improvements. This could be done if there was support from 10 per cent of rate payers.
- Joseph Bazalgette’s sewers - These were 1,300 miles of new, specially designed brick sewers in London. They used pumping stations and took waste eastwards.
- The 1875 Public Health Act - This forced towns to take public health action, such as appointing medical officers and providing new houses with piped water.
- The 1875 Artisans’ Dwelling Act - This gave local councils the power to buy up slum areas to clear and rebuild them.
- The 1875 Sale of Food and Drugs Act - This set basic standards for the quality of food and introduced harsh punishments for those who sold adulterated or contaminated food.
- Local initiatives - Examples included slum clearance in Birmingham and Manchester.
Question
Why were there attempts to improve public health in towns between 1848 and c.1900?
- Poverty and the work of individuals - The 1848 Public Health Act was passed as a result of the publication of Edwin Chadwick’s 1842 report into the causes of poverty. The work of individuals such as Benjamin Disraeli, Joseph Bazalgette, John Snow, Louis Pasteur and Joseph Chamberlain was also important.
- The ‘Great Stink’ of 1858 - Water levels in the River Thames fell so much that the smell of sewage became unbearable. MPs decided to take action. This led to the construction of a new sewage system in London, engineered by Joseph Bazalgette.
- Publication of Louis Pasteur’s germ theory in 1861 - Pasteur proved that it was germs that cause decay and disease. His theory convinced most scientists that disease was caused by germs, not miasma. By 1900, people were more willing to pay money to improve public health.
- Impact of epidemics - There were over 10,000 deaths from a fourth outbreak of cholera in 1865-1866. This was a reminder of the danger of dirty water.
- The 1867 Reform Act -This act, gave working-class men in the towns the right to vote. The working class were now the biggest group of voters. Conservative MP (and later prime minister) Benjamin Disraeli was, determined to win their support, public health reform was placed at the top of the government’s agenda.
- Weakening of laissez-faire and growth of government action - Due to a combination of the factors above, people’s attitudes towards government' involvement in their lives began to change. As a result, in contrast to previous legislation, the 1875 Public Health Act was not permissive (optional). It forced local authorities to take action in their areas.
- Local governments and civic pride - Towards the end of the 19th century, many towns and cities spent huge sums of money on building schemes. They did this to show off the prosperity of their towns, making them beautiful for everyone to see. Towns such as Manchester constructed grand new housing, squares and reservoirs.
