Exploring change and continuity - OCR BIndustrial Britain, c.1750-c.1900 - reasons for change

Industrial Britain saw an increase in the crime rate along with the introduction of a police force and changes to punishment. This case study summarises the main changes that took place in this period and examines the reasons for them.

Changes in crime

The crime rate

The increase in the population meant that there were more offenders and more potential victims. The crowded cities had many alleyways, overcrowded streets and lodging houses. These provided the ideal conditions for criminal activity to go undetected.

Overall, the crime rate increased between 1750 and 1850. This included a very sharp increase between 1815 and 1820. In 1815, the Napoleonic Wars - fought against France - ended. Thousands of soldiers returned home from the wars to face an economic slump, unemployment and rising prices. Many turned to theft out of desperation.

Types of crime

The most common type of crime in this period was petty theft, around 75 per cent of recorded crime. The growth of trade and industry meant that there were many more opportunities for criminals to commit crime. For example:

• There were more warehouses and factories, so theft from workplaces increased.
• The opening of more banks led to more bank robberies.
• The expansion of the middle classes meant there were more houses with more valuable goods to be stolen.

New crimes in this period included fare-dodging on the railways, failing to send your children to school, and embezzlement and other business-related crimes.

Changes in law enforcement

The introduction of the Metropolitan Police Force

In 1750, many people were against the idea of a centralised police force controlled by the government. This was because they feared the cost and didn’t believe policing was part of the government’s role. They were worried the police might limit people’s freedom and privacy.

• The rapid growth of towns and cities, particularly London, meant that the system of constables and watchmen was no longer sufficient.
• More Members of Parliament were worried about public disorder. There had been a surge of protests over unemployment, food prices and the fact that working people did not yet have the vote.

In 1822, Sir Robert Peel became the Home Secretary. He made establishing a police force one of his main aims. By 1829, he had won over the support of Parliament and the Metropolitan Police Force was set up in that year.

Initially, there were 3,200 men operating in a seven-mile radius in central London. They were paid for by government taxation. They were nicknamed ‘peelers’ or ‘bobbies’ after Sir Robert Peel. They wore top hats and blue uniforms to distinguish them from the army’s red coats, and were unarmed apart from a truncheon.

Changes in punishment

Changes to capital punishment

• The number of executions dropped after 1800. Between 1800 and 1809, there were 871 executions. Between 1830 and 1835, there were just 297.
• New forms of hanging were developed, such as the new drop and the long drop. Both of these made death quicker and less painful.
• Under Sir Robert Peel, the number of offences punishable by death was greatly reduced. By 1861, the death penalty had been abolished for all crimes apart from murder, treason, violent piracy and arson in royal dockyards.
• The change was partly a response to the courts being unwilling to use the death penalty and enforce the Bloody Code - a harsh system of punishment introduced in around 1688 - because they felt the death penalty was too severe a punishment for some crimes.
• Many people believed the Bloody Code prevented justice from occuring. They thought it allowed criminals to get away with their crimes - or even encouraged criminals to commit crime - as criminals might think they would not be found guilty if the jury did not believe the use of the death penalty for 'minor crimes' was necessary.
• In addition, the Enlightenment had spread humanitarian ideas, such as the belief that it was morally wrong to take away someone’s life.

Introduction of transportation

• Transportation, initially to America and then to Australia, was the main alternative to hanging until 1868.
• Hanging was becoming widely viewed as too extreme. Transportation was seen as a good alternative, particularly since courts were more prepared to use it. Prisons in Britain were still viewed as too expensive.
• People thought that transportation would reduce crime because it completely removed criminals from Britain. Prisoners could be used as labour to help build the new colony of Australia.
• Humanitarians thought that it was a good opportunity to reform criminals. They would be forced to work hard but also learn new skills.
• Convicts were usually sentenced to 7 years, 14 years or a lifetime of hard labour. When they arrived in Australia, they worked for free settlers or for the authorities, helping to build the new colony. Work included digging ditches and felling trees.
• The colony was based on harsh punishment. Convicts who broke rules would be flogged with 25, 50 or even 100 lashes. However, good behaviour was rewarded by early release, which provided good motivation for many convicts.

Changes to prisons

In 1750, prisons were run by gaolers as a business. Prisoners had to pay for everything themselves and did no real useful work. Conditions were cramped and unsanitary. Some gaolers used brutal punishments.

Prison reformers such as John Howard and Elizabeth Fry worked to improve conditions. By 1823, some changes had been made, such as:

• The system of paying fees to gaolers ended
• Justices of the Peace (JPs) had to visit gaols and write reports on conditions.
• Women had to be supervised only by female wardens.
• Prisoners should sleep in their own cell with their own bed or hammock.

In the 1840s, there was a surge of national prison building after the use of transportation came under criticism for a variety of reasons. These included:

• People argued that conditions on the ships and in the colonies were inhumane.
• Ratepayers disliked the fact that they had to support the families of the convicts who were left behind.
• Some peopled viewed transportation as too soft a punishment because of the opportunity for a new and better life after the sentence.

By 1877, 90 new prisons had been built or reconstructed. In the same year, the government took control of all prisons.

From the 1850s onwards, some prisons used the silent system. Prisoners were allowed to work together but in silence. Additionally, it was generally accepted that serious criminals serving over four years in prison would have their sentence reduced after a four-year period of good behaviour.

However, by the 1860s, governments encouraged the use of pointless tasks, such as turning the crank or walking the treadmill, for prisoners. This was because they thought that if criminals hated the work, they would be less likely to reoffend.

Furthermore, the moral panic of the Garrotting Crisis led to politicians bringing in new legislation on prison conditions. Conditions were made substantially harsher:

• Flogging (abolished in 1861) was brought back in 1863.
• The 1865 Prisons Act increased hard, pointless labour.
• The act also introduced punishments such as a diet of bread and water and more solitary confinement.